Digital Photography and Abstract Thinking:

The Effects of Experimental Dual-Code Cognitive Processing

on Students’ Photographic Portfolios and Preferences

Robert J. Beck and Morgan Appel

University of California, Irvine

Abstract

An experimental arts and literacy program employed a dual-code learning model, which theorized that the photography of abstract words would arouse complex visual and verbal meanings. It was predicted that the program would have an impact on students’ creative and aesthetic productions and preferences for abstract imagery. Over a 12-week period, 4^th and 7^th grade students (N = 63) photographed 25 abstract words in four domains: space and form; qualities; emotions/states; and social/community. The results indicated that the 4^th graders exhibited statistically significant increases in preferences for 30% of the abstract photographs, while the 7^th graders increased only in 5%. Moreover, 4th graders took 40% more abstract photographs over baseline rates while the 7^th graders shot only 10% more abstract photographs by the end of the program. 

Objective

The objective was to determine how 4^th and 7^th graders’ photographic preferences can be developed through an experimental instructional program in which students created photographs representing abstract vocabulary words. It was assumed that the instruction stimulated students’ combined, visual and verbal information processing systems. The primary research questions were whether the visualization of abstract vocabulary through digital photography supported students’ production of abstract photographs and increased their preferences for abstract photographs.

Perspective

Paivio (1971, 1986) proposed a dual-code model of information processing, in which verbal and imaginal information are encoded by separate cognitive subsystems, one for sensory images and the other for verbal language. While the two systems are considered structurally and functionally distinct, they can work independently or interdependently. They are interconnected when concepts that are represented as words can be converted to visual images in the other system or vice versa. Paivio claimed that memory and learning are enhanced through dual-code cognitive processing, involving visual and verbal modes of perception and memory processing, compared with verbal learning alone. In other words, children’s understanding and uses of language would develop when they practice with words in both visual and verbal ways.

Pictures play a role in students’ understanding of what they read, and successful readers automatically create visual images when they encounter words (Hibbing & Rankin-Erickson, 2003). Comprehension of texts was enhanced when students were prompted to use mental imagery (Suzuki, 1985). Swanson (1989) found that learning disabilities might involve problems in making verbal and nonverbal connections effectively.

Sigel (1978) proposed that more complex symbolization processes may be involved as pictures support verbal understanding and that picture comprehension is a learned phenomenon. Sigel concluded that picture comprehension might be a function of experience in comprehending and producing pictures. 

Kose (1985) found that, for 7-year-olds, experience with photography increased their discussion of the medium, irrespective of cognitive ability. For 11-year-olds at Piaget’s concrete operational stage, experience with photography was most influential for increasing the complexity of their responses. However, for those at the higher formal operational stage, experience with photography had a minimal effect. Chalfen (1974) found that disadvantaged children took more photographs of themselves and their friends than did middle class children, who focused more on scenes of nature, animals, and inanimate objects. Aitken and Wingate (1993) found that, among 6- to 14-year-olds, middle-class participants photographed more built and natural environments than did either homeless children or those with cerebral palsy.

Model and Research Questions

It was proposed that an instructional activity involving the photography of abstract words activates participants’ dual-code processing systems. In deciding what photograph would capture a word’s meaning, a learner selects an environmental image that best represents the word. In considering how a picture represents abstractions, involving creating comparisons or analogies between meanings represented by different media, a learner engages in higher-order, more abstract, thinking. In creating photographs using abstract words, students may self-reinforce their interest in abstract pictures. Teachers and peers also could support their efforts. As a result, they would develop greater preferences for abstract photographs. Because younger children and economically disadvantaged persons have been found to prefer more realistic images, one could theorize that they would show greater change in creating and preferring abstract images as an outcome of an instructional program that fostered abstract thinking.

Q1. Would practice in dual coding of words through photographic images lead to increased preferences for abstract photographs?

Prediction. Participants will indicate more preferences for abstract photographs after the instructional intervention when compared with their abstract photograph preferences at the baseline starting point.

Q2. Would practice in dual coding of words through photographic images lead to increases in creating abstract photographs?

Prediction. Participants will create more abstract photographs after the instructional intervention as compared to the baseline starting point.

It was predicted that increases in creating abstract photographs and preferences for abstract photographs would be greater for younger 4^th grade low SES children than for 7^th graders.

Method

Participants

            Participants were 63 elementary and middle school students in an urban setting, drawn from three schools: a 4^th grade class of 27 students (15 females, 12 males) in a low Socio-Economic Status (SES) school district; a 7^th grade class of 23 students (15 females, 8 males) in a low SES district; and a 7^th grade class of 13 students (4 females, 9 males) in a high SES district.

Course Design and Procedure

            The course was organized through ArtsBridge America, a national association of university outreach programs, in which undergraduate and graduate students (ArtsBridge scholars) provide arts instruction in local schools. The objectives of the course were to engage students in complex vocabulary to improve their literacy through the arts, enhance their aesthetic judgments, and improve their skills as photographers and artists. The sequence was as follows:

1. Students were introduced to the ArtsBridge scholar and trained in the use of digital cameras.

2. Students then were administered a photographic preference scale and were requested to use the digital cameras to take a series of baseline photographs with subjects of their own choosing within or outside the campus boundaries. Pupils, teachers, and scholars discussed the photos and subjects.

3. From this point on (second week), vocabulary terms were introduced every two weeks from a standardized list of 50 terms, in groups of five words, with some variation in their sequence in the three classrooms. In each of five two-week cycles, pupils would take a vocabulary pre-test that asked them to define each term and use it in a sentence. Pupils, scholars, and teachers would then explore definitions collaboratively, using dictionaries and discussion. Then they were asked to photograph each of the terms using the digital camera. Most images were discussed in class, as to how well the definition was captured and their photographic aesthetic merits. During each cycle, the scholar would introduce ideas about capturing digital images, including displaying works by well known photographers and visual artists. Pupils were encouraged to experiment with subject matter and to adapt or expand upon the scholar’s ideas and expert works. At the end of each cycle, a vocabulary post-test, identical to the pre-test, was administered.      

4. At course end, students again took photographs of their choosing and the preferences scale was re-administered.

Materials

The vocabulary list included 50 words in four domains: space and form (examples are: amorphous, texture, ambiguity, power); qualities (examples are: beautiful, exciting, pleasant, dangerous), emotions/states (examples are: wonder, suspicious, mystery), and people/social (examples are: tolerance, community, cooperation, diversity).

Instruments

Students Photographic Portfolios

Pre- and post- collections of student photographs were stored electronically.

Photograph Preferences Scale

The pre- and post-scale included 30 photographs from publicly accessible images or those taken by ArtsBridge scholars. They were defined as abstract (17) or conventional (13) by the study’s authors. Conventional photographs generally resembled snapshots of family or friends. Pupils were asked to indicate the degree to which they liked each picture on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = “I do not like it at all” to 5 = “I like it a lot”) and to explain their preferences by answering, “Why did you answer this way?”

 Vocabulary Tests

The pre- and post-vocabulary tests included five identical terms selected by the scholar and teacher during each two-week cycle. These terms were selected from among the 50 choices in the vocabulary list, at the discretion of the scholar-teacher team.

Evidence

Students’ Photograph Preferences Scale. The percentage of abstract and conventional photographs taken was compared between baseline and the final two weeks of the program.

Students Photographic Portfolios. Due to memory card sharing, these data were aggregated by grade level. The evidence was taken from percentage comparisons made between baseline photos and those shot in the final two weeks of the program.

Results

Tables 1 and 2 show the preference results for abstract and conventional photographs by school. For all schools combined, the preference for abstract photos rose significantly in a positive direction in six of the 17 abstract photographs, but only in two conventional photographs, of which only one had a higher mean score.

 

Table 1

 

Pre- and Post-Mean Scores and t Values for Abstract Photographs by School

 

	Pre	Post	t	p	Pre	Post	t	p	Pre	Post	t	p	Pre	Post	t	p
1	2.18	2.52	-2.70	.009	2.19	2.44	-1.23	.230	2.06	2.24	-1.00	.332	2.33	3.08	-3.45	.005
2	2.79	2.89	-0.75	.458	2.56	2.89	-1.61	.119	2.76	2.76	0.00	1.00	3.33	3.08	1.15	.275
4	3.29	3.64	-2.06	.044	3.22	3.63	-1.66	.110	3.06	3.24	-0.53	.605	3.75	4.25	-1.32	.214
5	3.66	3.66	0.00	1.00	3.89	3.89	0.00	1.00	3.41	3.42	0.00	1.00	3.50	3.50	0.00	1.00
7	4.02	3.98	0.25	.248	4.04	4.30	-1.19	.244	4.19	3.50	2.71	.016	3.75	3.92	-0.80	.438
9	3.63	3.98	-2.18	.034	3.56	4.22	-2.94	.007	2.47	2.59	-0.21	.835	3.50	3.58	-0.21	.838
11	2.96	3.20	-1.61	.113	2.70	3.04	-1.47	.153	2.88	3.00	-0.49	.632	3.73	3.91	-0.56	.588
12	2.95	3.02	-0.41	.684	2.63	2.59	0.14	.887	3.31	3.50	-0.50	.628	3.17	3.33	-0.56	.586
14	2.30	2.71	-2.70	.009	2.19	2.70	-2.33	.028	2.47	2.59	-0.46	.651	2.33	2.92	-1.63	.131
15	2.46	2.72	-1.44	.155	2.70	3.22	-1.38	.179	2.53	2.40	0.62	.546	2.83	3.17	-1.48	.166
17	2.40	2.78	-2.67	.010	2.44	2.93	-2.16	.040	2.06	2.31	-0.94	.362	2.75	3.08	-1.30	.220
18	3.31	3.04	1.82	.075	3.22	2.93	1.16	.256	3.38	2.94	1.70	.110	3.42	3.42	0.00	1.00
20	3.91	4.07	-1.07	.290	3.74	4.26	-2.27	.032	4.19	4.00	0.72	.485	3.92	3.75	-0.62	.551
22	4.06	3.96	0.57	.574	4.22	4.26	-0.15	.879	3.88	3.63	0.85	.411	3.90	3.70	-0.51	.619
24	1.88	1.90	-0.15	.881	2.00	1.85	1.00	.327	2.00	2.08	-0.29	.776	1.40	1.80	-1.00	.343
26	3.08	3.50	-2.14	.038	3.19	3.70	-1.93	.065	2.67	2.83	-0.46	.658	3.17	3.33	-0.94	.377
28	3.43	3.79	-1.89	.065	3.44	4.11	-2.94	.007	3.18	2.91	0.56	.558	3.67	3.89	-0.61	.559

 

Note. Statistically significant p values are indicated in bold.

 

 

Table 2

 

Pre- and Post-Means: Conventional Photographs by School

 

	Pre	Post	t	p	Pre	Post	t	p	Pre	Post	t	p	Pre	Post	t	p
3	2.86	2.98	-0.90	.375	2.59	2.78	-0.80	.434	3.24	3.35	-0.49	.632	2.92	2.92	0.00	1.00
6	3.14	3.16	-0.13	.896	3.15	3.11	0.17	.869	3.24	3.35	-0.70	.496	3.00	3.00	0.00	1.00
8	4.18	3.86	2.26	.011	4.37	4.11	1.49	.148	4.24	3.76	2.22	.041	3.67	3.42	0.82	.429
10	2.60	2.69	-0.59	.558	2.37	2.33	0.15	.882	2.88	3.00	-0.46	.652	2.75	3.08	-1.30	.220
13	2.75	2.95	-1.18	.242	2.59	2.67	-0.47	.646	2.94	3.12	-0.55	.593	2.83	3.33	-0.94	.365
16	4.18	4.27	-0.66	.513	4.30	4.48	1.10	.284	4.06	3.94	0.37	.718	4.08	4.25	-0.69	.504
19	3.00	3.22	-1.41	.165	2.56	2.85	-1.25	.223	3.50	3.63	-0.52	.609	3.33	3.50	-0.46	.658
21	2.37	2.83	-3.15	.003	2.07	2.41	-1.56	.131	2.80	3.20	-1.57	.138	2.50	4.40	-2.86	.019
23	3.54	3.46	0.59	.561	3.33	3.33	0.00	1.00	3.31	3.15	0.62	.549	4.40	4.20	1.50	.168
25	2.53	2.45	0.50	.622	2.41	2.33	0.32	.752	2.58	2.42	0.44	.438	2.80	2.80	0.00	1.00
27	2.56	2.75	-1.04	.304	2.44	2.67	-1.00	.327	3.08	2.83	0.64	.536	2.22	2.89	-1.51	.169
29	2.83	3.09	-1.29	.204	2.26	2.81	-1.96	.061	3.18	3.18	0.00	1.00	4.11	3.78	0.76	.471
30	3.72	3.83	-0.55	.589	3.81	3.81	0.00	1.00	3.73	3.55	0.43	.676	3.44	4.22	-2.14	.065

 

Note. Significant ps are in bold.

 

 

The results for the 4^th graders revealed that of the 17 abstract photographs, preferences for 5 pictures rose significantly (p = .007 to p = .03), another 3 rose with marginal significance (p = .06 to p = .11), and only three scores had no change or declined. Thus, we can conclude that 4^th graders had greater preferences for most abstract photos by the end of the program compared with their baseline choices. However, for conventional pictures, only one picture was significantly different in a positive direction. Another was significant, but in a negative direction. Therefore, the program had an impact on 4^th grade students’ preferences for abstract, but not conventional, photographs.

The two 7^th grade samples combined had only two significant changes in preferences for abstract photographs, and one mean score was in a negative direction. Similar results were obtained for changes of preferences for conventional photographs: only two significant changes, and one was negative. Therefore, the program had no impact on 7^th  grade students’ preferences for either abstract or conventional photographs.

 

Photograph Portfolios

It was predicted that the younger participants would initially take more conventional photographs. At baseline, 70 of 128 shots (54.6%) taken were abstract. Thus, they had an approximately equal interest in the two types of photographs. In contrast, by the end of the program, the students were taking a much higher percentage of abstract photographs: 58 of 64 photographs (90.6%) were classified as abstract. The increase in abstract photographic preferences for 4^th graders was compatible with their interest in creating abstract images.

Among the 7^th graders, in the low SES middle school, at baseline, 93 of 146 pictures (63.4%) were abstract while, at the end, 130 of 160 images (81.25%) were abstract. Thus, as expected, the older group started out with a greater percentage of abstract pictures, but did not shoot as high a percentage as did the 4^th graders. At the high SES middle school, 46 of 54 pictures (85.1%) were abstract at baseline, but this was essentially unchanged (19 of 22; 86.3%) at the end. Thus, as expected, students in the high SES school began with a greater interest in abstract pictures, but showed no increase in taking abstract pictures, perhaps because they were already at a high level.

Educational Importance of the Study

There were two important findings. First, for changes in their photographic preferences and creations, younger students profited more from the program than did the older students. This supports Kose’s (1985) finding that children at earlier developmental stages may profit from experience with the photographic medium and Sigel’s (1978) conclusion that experience may be a critical factor in the development of pictorial comprehension.

Second, the proposed dual-code model received some support for the younger group. It had been theorized that the task in this experimental program aroused dual-code processing in which abstract words had to be represented visually. It was assumed that this activity would lead to production of abstract photographs, as conventional photographs would not communicate abstract meanings as easily. There was evidence that abstract photography increased. The implication was that production of abstract photographs during the program was associated with increased preferences for abstract photographs.

Understanding the associations between photography of abstract subjects and preferences for abstract photographs requires further research. An elaboration of this program should develop methods for testing whether the abstract thinking, which has been assumed to be an outcome of dual code processing, may be transferred to other kinds of cognitive tasks. 

References

Aitken, S. C., & Wingate, J. (1993). A preliminary study of the self-directed photography of middle-class, homeless, and mobility-impaired children. Professional Geographer, 45(1), 65-72.

Chalfen, R. (1974). Snapshot versions of life. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green Press.

Hibbing, A. N., & Rankin-Erickson, J. L. (2003). A picture is worth a thousand words: Using visual images to improve comprehension for middle school struggling readers. The Reading Teacher, 56(8), 758-771.

Kose, G. (1985). Children’s knowledge of photography: A study of the developing awareness of a representational medium. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 3, 373-384.

Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A dual-coding approach. New York: Oxford University Press.

Sigel, I. (1978). The development of pictorial comprehension. In R. S. Randhawa & W. E. Coffman, (Eds.), Visual learning, thinking and comprehension (pp. 93-111). New York: Academic Press

Suzuki, N. S. (1985). Imagery research with young children: Implications for education. In A. A. Sheikh & K. S. Sheikh (Eds.), Imagery in education (pp. 179-198). Farmingdale, NY: Baywood.

Swanson, H. L. (1989). Verbal coding deficits in learning-disabled readers: A multiple stage model. Educational Psychology Review, 1, 235-277.